Navigating Public Policy Responses to A Pandemic: The Balancing Act Between Physical Health, Mental Health and Household Income.

OBJECTIVE: During COVID-19, governments imposed restrictions that reduced pandemic-related health risks but likely increased personal and societal mental health risk, partly through reductions in household income. This study aims to quantify the public's willingness to accept trade-offs between pandemic health risks, household income reduction, and increased risk for mental illness that may result from future pandemic-related policies. METHODS: 547 adults from an online panel participated in a discrete choice experiment where they were asked to choose between hypothetical future pandemic scenarios. Each scenario was characterized by personal and societal risks of dying from the pandemic, suffering long-term complications, developing anxiety/depression, and reductions in household income. A latent-class regression was used to estimate trade-offs. RESULTS: Respondents state a willingness to make trade-offs across these attributes if the benefits are large enough. They are willing to accept 0.8% (0.7 to 1.0) lower household income, 2.7% (1.8 to 3.6) higher personal risk of anxiety/depression, or 3.2% (1.7 to 4.7) higher societal rate of anxiety/depression in exchange for 300 fewer deaths from the pandemic. CONCLUSION: Results reveal that individuals are willing to accept lower household income and higher rates of mental illness, both personal and societal, if the physical health benefits are large enough. Respondents placed greater emphasis on maintaining personal, as opposed to societal, mental health risk and were most interested to prevent pandemic-related deaths. Governments should consider less restrictive policies when pandemics have high morbidity but low mortality to avoid the prospect of improving physical health while simultaneously reducing net social welfare.

Cost-Effectiveness of a Multicomponent Primary Care Intervention for Hypertension.

BACKGROUND: The SingHypertension primary care clinic intervention, which consisted of clinician training in hypertension management, subsidized single-pill combination medications, nurse-delivered motivational conversations and telephone follow-ups, improved blood pressure control and cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk scores relative to usual care among patients with uncontrolled hypertension in Singapore. This study quantified the incremental cost-effectiveness, in terms of incremental cost per unit reduction disability-adjusted life years, of SingHypertension relative to usual care for patients with hypertension from the health system perspective. METHODS AND RESULTS: We developed a Markov model to simulate CVD events and associated outcomes for a hypothetical cohort of patients over a 10-year period. Costs were measured in US dollars, and effectiveness was measured in disability-adjusted life years averted. We present base-case results and conducted deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses. Based on a willingness-to-pay threshold of US $55 500 per DALY averted, SingHypertension was cost-effective for patients with hypertension (incremental cost-effectiveness ratio: US $24 765 per disability-adjusted life year averted) relative to usual care. This result held even if risk reduction was assumed to decline linearly to 0 over 10 years but not sooner than 7 years. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios were most sensitive to the magnitude of the reduction in CVD risk; at least a 0.13% to 0.16% point reduction in 10-year CVD risk is required for cost-effectiveness. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis indicates that SingHypertension has a 78% chance of being cost-effective at the willingness-to-pay threshold. CONCLUSIONS: SingHypertension represents good value for the money for reducing CVD incidence, morbidity, and mortality and should be considered for wide-scale implementation in Singapore and possibly other countries. REGISTRATION INFORMATION: REGISTRATION: URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov; Unique identifier: NCT02972619.

Cost-effectiveness of sodium zirconium cyclosilicate for advanced chronic kidney patients in Singapore.

INTRODUCTION: Hyperkalaemia (HK) is prevalent among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and chronic heart failure, especially if they are treated with renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors (RAASi). This study evaluated the cost-effectiveness of a newly developed anti-HK therapy, sodium zirconium cyclosilicate (SZC), to the current standard of care for treating HK in advanced CKD patients from the Singapore health system perspective. METHODS: We adapted a global microsimulation model to simulate individual patients' potassium level trajectories with baseline potassium ≥5.5 mmol/L, CKD progression, changes in treatment, and other fatal and non-fatal events. Effectiveness data was derived from ZS-004 and ZS-005 trials. Model parameters were localised using CKD patients' administrative and medical records at the Singapore General Hospital Department of Renal Medicine. We estimated the lifetime cost and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) of each HK treatment, and the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of SZC. RESULTS: SZC demonstrated cost-effectiveness with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratsio of SGD 45 068 per QALY over a lifetime horizon, below the willingness-to-pay threshold of SGD 90 000 per QALY. Notably, SZC proved most cost-effective for patients with less severe CKD who were concurrently using RAASi. Sensitivity analyses confirmed the robustness of the findings, accounting for alternative parameter values and statistical uncertainty. CONCLUSION: This study establishes the cost-effectiveness of SZC as a treatment for HK, highlighting its potential to mitigate the risk of hyperkalaemia and optimise RAASi therapy. These findings emphasise the value of integrating SZC into the Singapore health system for improved patient outcomes and resource allocation.

An Integrated Patient-Centred Medical Home (PCMH) Care Model Reduces Prospective Healthcare Utilisation for Community-Dwelling Older Adults with Complex Needs: A Matched Observational Study in Singapore.

The global ageing population is associated with increased health service use. The PCMH care model integrates primary care and home-based care management to deliver comprehensive and personalised healthcare to community-dwelling older adults with bio-psycho-social needs. We examined if an integrated PCMH reduced healthcare utilisation burden of older persons in Singapore. We compared the healthcare utilisation between the intervention group and coarsened exact matched controls for a follow-up of 15 months. Baseline matching covariates included socio-demographics, health status, and past healthcare use. We accounted for COVID-19 social distancing effects on health-seeking behaviour. The intervention group consisted of 165 older adults with complex needs. We analysed national administrative healthcare utilisation data from 2017 to 2020. We applied multivariable zero-inflated regression modelling and presented findings stratified by high (CCI ≥ 5) and low disease burden (CCI < 5). Compared to controls, there were significant reductions in emergency department (ß = -0.85; 95%CI = -1.55 to -0.14) and primary care visits (ß = -1.70; 95%CI = -2.17 to -1.22) and a decrease in specialist outpatient visits (ß = -0.29; 95%CI = -0.64 to 0.07) in the 3-month period immediately after one-year enrolment. The number of acute hospitalisations remained stable. Compared to controls, the intervention group with high and low comorbidity burden had significant decreases in primary care use, while only those with lower comorbidity burden had significant reductions in utilisation of other service types. An integrated PCMH appears beneficial in reducing healthcare utilisation for older persons with complex needs after 1 year in the programme. Future research can explore longer-term utilisation and scalability of the care model.

Cost-effectiveness of alternative first- and second-line treatments for benign prostatic hyperplasia in Singapore.

BACKGROUND: Minimally invasive surgical therapies, such as water vapor thermal therapy (WVTT) and prostatic urethral lift (PUL), are typically second-line options for patients in whom medical management (MM) failed but who are unwilling or unsuitable to undergo invasive transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP). However, the incremental cost-effectiveness of WVTT or PUL as first- or second-line therapy is unknown. We evaluated the incremental cost-effectiveness of alternative first- and second-line treatments for patients with moderate-to-severe benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in Singapore to help policymakers make subsidy decisions based on value for money. METHODS: We considered six stepped-up treatment strategies, beginning with MM, WVTT, PUL or TURP. In each strategy, patients requiring retreatment advance to a more invasive treatment until TURP, which may be undergone twice. A Markov cohort model was used to simulate transitions between BPH severity states and retreatment, accruing costs and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) over a lifetime horizon. RESULTS: In moderate patients, strategies beginning with MM had similar cost and effectiveness, and first-line WVTT was incrementally cost-effective to first-line MM (33,307 SGD/QALY). First-line TURP was not incrementally cost-effective to first-line WVTT (159,361 SGD/QALY). For severe patients, WVTT was incrementally cost-effective to MM as a first-line treatment (30,133 SGD/QALY) and to TURP as a second-line treatment following MM (6877 SGD/QALY). TURP was incrementally cost-effective to WVTT as a first-line treatment (48,209 SGD/QALY) in severe patients only. All pathways involving PUL were dominated (higher costs and lower QALYs). CONCLUSION: Based on the common willingness-to-pay threshold of SGD 50,000/QALY, this study demonstrates the cost-effectiveness of WVTT over MM as first-line treatment for patients with moderate or severe BPH, suggesting it represents good value for money and should be considered for subsidy. PUL is not cost-effective as a first- nor second-line treatment. For patients with severe BPH, TURP as first-line is also cost-effective.

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate, common among older men. Its symptoms include difficulties with starting and completing urination, incontinence, frequent and urgent need to urinate. Minimally invasive procedures, such as water vapor thermal therapy (WVTT) and prostatic urethral lift (PUL), are typically offered as second-line options to patients for whom medication has failed but who are unwilling or unsuitable to undergo invasive surgery (transurethral resection of the prostate, TURP). However, whether offering these procedures as first-line options represents good value for money (i.e. cost-effectiveness) is an open question. To address this question and inform subsidy decisions in Singapore, we investigated six stepped-up treatment strategies which differ in first- and second-line treatments. For each strategy, we simulated healthcare costs and quality of life for a cohort of moderate and severe BPH patients over their lifetime, considering the possibility of treatment-related adverse effects and multiple rounds of retreatment. The incremental cost of a unit improvement in quality of life for a strategy relative to the next most expensive one was compared against a willingness-to-pay threshold to determine cost-effectiveness. We found that WVTT was cost-effective relative to medication as a first-line treatment for patients with moderate or severe BPH, suggesting it represents good value for money and should be considered for subsidy. PUL was not cost-effective as first- nor second-line treatment. TURP is cost-effective as first-line for severe BPH patients only.

Three-year Outcomes of an Expanded Asynchronous Virtual Glaucoma Clinic in Singapore.

PURPOSE: Virtual glaucoma clinics can help increase health care capacity, easing the disease burden of glaucoma. This study assesses the safety, rate of glaucoma progression, time efficiency, and cost-savings of our expanded Glaucoma Observation Clinic (GLOC) at the Singapore National Eye Centre over 3 years. METHODS: All patients seen at GLOC between July 2018 and June 2021 were included. Visual acuity, intraocular pressure, and visual fields or optic nerve head imaging were recorded, followed by a virtual review of the data by an ophthalmologist. An objective review of the management of 100 patients was conducted by 2 senior consultants independently as a safety audit. Patient outcomes including the rate of instability (due to worsening of clinical parameters necessitating a conventional clinic visit), glaucoma progression, the consultation review time efficiency, and cost-savings of GLOC were measured. RESULTS: Of 3458 patients, 16% had glaucoma, and the others had risk factors for glaucoma. The safety audit demonstrated a 95% interobserver agreement. The rate of instability was 14.6%, of which true progression was observed in 3.12%. The time taken for a glaucoma specialist to review a GLOC patient was 5.75±0.75 minutes compared with 13.7±2.3 minutes in a conventional clinic. The per capita manpower cost per GLOC patient per visit was $36.77 compared with $65.62 in the conventional clinic. This translates to a cost-saving of $280.65 over the lifetime of a hypothetical patient. CONCLUSIONS: Our expanded virtual glaucoma clinic is a safe, time-efficient, and cost-effective model with low rates of glaucoma progression, which could allow for significant health care capacity expansion.

The relationship between hope, medical expenditure and survival among advanced cancer patients.

Introduction: Among those with advanced illness, higher levels of hope may offer physiological benefits. Yet, greater levels of hope may also encourage aggressive treatments. Therefore, higher levels of hope may lead to greater healthcare utilization, higher expenditure, and longer survival. We test these hypotheses among patients with advanced cancer. Methods: A secondary data analysis from a cross-sectional survey of 195 advanced cancer patients with high mortality risk linked to subsequent healthcare utilization (outpatient, day surgeries, non-emergency admissions), health expenditures, and death records. The survey collected data on hope, measured generally by the Herth Hope Index (HHI) and more narrowly by two questions on illness-related hope. Generalized linear regression and Cox models were used to test our hypotheses. Results: 142 (78%) survey participants died during the period of analysis, with close to half (46%) doing so within a year of the survey. Contrary to expectation, HHI scores did not have a significant association with healthcare utilization, expenditure or survival. Yet, illness-related hope, defined as those who expected to live at least 2 years, as opposed to the likely prognosis of 1 year or less as determined by the primary treating oncologist, had 6.6 more planned hospital encounters (95% CI 0.90 to 12.30) in the 12-months following the survey and 41% lower mortality risk (hazard ratio: 0.59, 95% CI 0.36 to 0.99) compared to those who were less optimistic. Secondary analysis among decedents showed that patients who believed that the primary intent of their treatment is curative, had higher total expenditure (S$30,712; 95% CI S$3,143 to S$58,282) in the last 12 months of life than those who did not have this belief. Conclusion: We find no evidence of a relationship between a general measure of hope and healthcare utilization, expenditure, or survival among advanced cancer patients. However, greater illness-related hope is positively associated with these outcomes.

The economic burden of inherited retinal disease in Singapore: a prevalence-based cost-of-illness study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the economic impact of inherited retinal disease (IRD) among Singaporeans. METHODS: IRD prevalence was calculated using population-based data. Focused surveys were conducted for sequentially enrolled IRD patients from a tertiary hospital. The IRD cohort was compared to the age- and gender-matched general population. Economic costs were expanded to the national IRD population to estimate productivity and healthcare costs. RESULTS: National IRD caseload was 5202 cases (95% CI, 1734-11273). IRD patients (n = 95) had similar employment rates to the general population (67.4% vs. 70.7%; p = 0.479). Annual income was lower among IRD patients than the general population (SGD 19,500 vs. 27,161; p < 0.0001). Employed IRD patients had lower median income than the general population (SGD 39,000 vs. 52,650; p < 0.0001). Per capita cost of IRD was SGD 9382, with a national burden of SGD 48.8 million per year. Male gender (beta of SGD 6543, p = 0.003) and earlier onset (beta of SGD 150/year, p = 0.009) predicted productivity loss. Treatment of the most economically impacted 10% of IRD patients with an effective IRD therapy required initial treatment cost of less than SGD 250,000 (USD 188,000) for cost savings to be achieved within 20 years. CONCLUSIONS: Employment rates among Singaporean IRD patients were the same as the general population, but patient income was significantly lower. Economic losses were driven in part by male patients with early age of onset. Direct healthcare costs contributed relatively little to the financial burden.

Cost analysis of a Patient-Centred Medical Home for community-dwelling older adults with complex needs in Singapore.

INTRODUCTION: The Patient-Centred Medical Home (PCMH) demonstration in Singapore, launched in November 2016, aimed to deliver integrated and patient-centred care for patients with biopsychosocial needs. Implementation was based on principles of comprehensiveness, coordinated care and shared decision-making. METHOD: We conducted a prospective single-arm pre-post study design, which aimed to perform cost analysis of PCMH from the perspectives of patients, healthcare providers and society. We assessed short-to-intermediate-term health-related costs by analysing data on resource use and unit costs of resources. RESULTS: We analysed 165 participants enrolled in PCMH from November 2017 to April 2020, with mean age of 77 years. Compared to the 3-month period before enrolment, mean total direct and indirect participant costs and total health system costs increased, but these were not statistically significant. There was a significant decrease in mean cost for primary care (government primary care and private general practice) in the first 3-month and second 3-month periods after enrolment, accompanied by a significant decrease in service utilisation and mean costs for PCMH services in the second 3-month period post-enrolment. This suggested a shift in resource costs from primary care to community-based care provided by PCMH, which had added benefits of both clinic-based primary care and home-based care management. Findings were consistent with a lower longer-term cost trajectory for PCMH after the initial onboarding period. Indirect caregiving costs remained stable. CONCLUSION: The PCMH care model was associated with reduced costs to the health system and patients for usual primary care, and did not significantly change societal costs.

Heterogeneous health effects of medical marijuana legalization: Evidence from young adults in the United States.

Legalizing marijuana for medical purposes is a longstanding debate. However, evidence of marijuana's health effects is limited, especially for young adults. We estimate the health impacts of medical marijuana laws (MML) in the U.S. among young adults aged 18-29 years using the difference-in-differences method and data from the Behavioral Risk Factors Surveillance System. We find that having MMLs with strict regulations generate health gains, but not in states with lax regulations. Our heterogeneity analysis results indicate that individuals with lower education attainments, with lower household income and without access to health insurance coverage gain more health benefits from MML with strict regulations than from MML with lax regulations. The findings suggest greater net health gains under strict controls concerning marijuana supply and access.

Real-world cost-effectiveness of anti-VEGF monotherapy and combination therapy for the treatment of polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy.

OBJECTIVES: For patients with polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy (PCV), intravitreal anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) combination therapy has been shown to be cost-saving relative to monotherapy in a clinical trial setting. However, whether this also applies to real-world settings is unclear. We aim to compare the real-world functional outcomes and cost-effectiveness of intravitreal anti-VEGF combination therapy relative to monotherapy, to investigate whether combination therapy is truly cost-saving. METHODS: We used a Markov model to simulate a hypothetical cohort of PCV patients treated at Singapore National Eye Centre. Model parameters were informed by coarsened exact matched estimates of a two-year retrospective study of patients who initiated treatment in 2015. Treatment options included intravitreal aflibercept, bevacizumab, or ranibizumab, as monotherapy or in combination with full-fluence verteporfin photodynamic therapy. RESULTS: The two-year logMAR letters gains were significant for combination therapy ( + 10.6, P = 0.006) but not monotherapy (-2.2, P = 0.459). Over 20 years, a PCV patient would cost the health system SGD 48,790 under monotherapy and SGD 61,020 under combination therapy. Quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) were estimated to be 7.41 for monotherapy and 7.80 for combination therapy. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of combination therapy was SGD 31,460/QALY, which is less than the common willingness-to-pay threshold of per capita gross domestic product of Singapore (SGD 88,990/QALY). Sensitivity analysis showed that combination therapy remained incrementally cost-effective, but not cost-saving. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows that combination therapy is good value for money but is likely to increase costs when applied in real-world settings.

Healthcare worker stress, anxiety and burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic in Singapore: A 6-month multi-centre prospective study.

AIM: The long-term stress, anxiety and job burnout experienced by healthcare workers (HCWs) are important to consider as the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic stresses healthcare systems globally. The primary objective was to examine the changes in the proportion of HCWs reporting stress, anxiety, and job burnout over six months during the peak of the pandemic in Singapore. The secondary objective was to examine the extent that objective job characteristics, HCW-perceived job factors, and HCW personal resources were associated with stress, anxiety, and job burnout. METHOD: A sample of HCWs (doctors, nurses, allied health professionals, administrative and operations staff; N = 2744) was recruited via invitation to participate in an online survey from four tertiary hospitals. Data were gathered between March-August 2020, which included a 2-month lockdown period. HCWs completed monthly web-based self-reported assessments of stress (Perceived Stress Scale-4), anxiety (Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7), and job burnout (Physician Work Life Scale). RESULTS: The majority of the sample consisted of female HCWs (81%) and nurses (60%). Using random-intercept logistic regression models, elevated perceived stress, anxiety and job burnout were reported by 33%, 13%, and 24% of the overall sample at baseline respectively. The proportion of HCWs reporting stress and job burnout increased by approximately 1·0% and 1·2% respectively per month. Anxiety did not significantly increase. Working long hours was associated with higher odds, while teamwork and feeling appreciated at work were associated with lower odds, of stress, anxiety, and job burnout. CONCLUSIONS: Perceived stress and job burnout showed a mild increase over six months, even after exiting the lockdown. Teamwork and feeling appreciated at work were protective and are targets for developing organizational interventions to mitigate expected poor outcomes among frontline HCWs.

Impact of a patient-centered medical home demonstration on quality of life and patient activation for older adults with complex needs in Singapore.

BACKGROUND: The first Patient-Centered Medical Home (PCMH) demonstration in Singapore was launched in November 2016, which aimed to deliver integrated and patient-centered care for patients with bio-psycho-social needs. Implementation was guided by principles of comprehensiveness, coordinated care, shared decision-making, accessible services, and quality and safety. We aimed to investigate the impact of implementing the PCMH in primary care on quality of life (QoL) and patient activation. METHODS: The study design was a prospective single-arm pre-post study. We applied the 5-level EuroQol 5-dimension (EQ-5D-5L) and Visual Analog Scale (EQ VAS) instruments to assess health-related QoL. The CASP-19 tool was utilised to examine the degree that needs satisfaction was fulfilled in the domains of Control, Autonomy, Self-realisation, and Pleasure. The 13-item Patient Activation Measure (PAM-13) was used to evaluate knowledge, skills and confidence in management of conditions and ability to self-care. Multivariable linear regression models with random intercepts were applied to examine the impact of the PCMH intervention on outcome measures at 3 months and 6 months post-enrolment, compared to baseline. RESULTS: We analysed 165 study participants enrolled into the PCMH from November 2017 to April 2020, with mean age 77 years (SD: 9.9). Within-group pre-post (6 months) EQ-5D-5L Index (ß= -0.01, p-value = 0.35) and EQ VAS score (ß=-0.03, p-value = 0.99) had no change. Compared to baseline, there were improvements in CASP-19 total score at 3 months (ß = 1.34, p-value = 0.05) and 6 months post-enrolment (ß = 1.15, p-value = 0.08) that were marginally out of statistical significance. There was also a significant impact of the PCMH on the CASP-19 Pleasure domain (ß = 0.62, p = 0.03) at 6 months post-enrolment, compared to baseline. We found improved patient activation from a 15.2 % reduction in the proportion of participants in lower PAM levels, and a 23.4 and 16.7 % rise in proportion for higher PAM levels 3 and 4, respectively, from 3 months to 6 months post-enrolment. CONCLUSIONS: Preliminary demonstration of the PCMH model shows evidence of improved needs satisfaction and patient activation, with potential to have a greater impact after a longer intervention duration.

Impact of Treatment Subsidies and Cash Payouts on Treatment Choices at the End of Life.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the extent to which financial assistance, in the form of subsidies for life-extending treatments (LETs) or cash payouts, distorts the demand for end-of-life treatments. METHODS: A discrete choice experiment was administered to 290 patients with cancer in Singapore to elicit preferences for LETs and only palliative care (PC). Responses were fitted to a latent class conditional logistic regression model. We also quantified patients' willingness to pay to avoid and willingness to accept a less effective LET or PC-only. We then simulated the effects of various LET subsidy and cash payout policies on treatment choices. RESULTS: We identified three classes of patients according to their preferences. The first class (26.1% of the sample) had a strong preference for PC and were willing to give up life expectancy gains and even pay for receiving only PC. The second class (29.8% of the sample) had a strong preference for LETs and preferred to extend life regardless of cost or quality of life. The final class (44.1% of the sample) preferred LETs to PC, but actively traded off costs and length and quality of life when making end-of-life treatment choices. Policy simulations showed that LET subsidies increase demand for LETs at the expense of demand for PC, but an equivalent cash payout was not shown to distort demand. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with cancer have heterogeneous end-of-life preferences. LET subsidies and cash payouts have differing effects on the use of LETs. Policymakers should be mindful of these differences when designing health care financing schemes for patients with life-limiting illnesses.

The economic burden of self-reported and undiagnosed cardiovascular diseases and diabetes on Indonesian households.

OBJECTIVES: The goal of this study is: (1) to estimate the current direct out-of-pocket (OOP) and indirect non-communicable diseases (NCD) burden on Indonesian households and (2) to project NCD prevalence and burden in 2020 focusing specifically on hypertension, diabetes, heart problems and stroke. METHODS: This study relies on econometric analyses based on four waves of the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS). RESULTS: In aggregate, of the NCDs studied, heart problems exert the greatest economic burden on households, costing Int$1.56 billion in OOP and indirect burden in 2010. This was followed by hypertension (Int$1.36 billion), diabetes (Int$0.81 billion) and stroke (Int$0.29 billion). The OOP and indirect burden of these conditions is estimated to be Int$4.02 billion. Diabetes and stroke are expected to have the largest proportional increases in burden by 2020; 56.0% for diabetes and 56.9% for stroke to total Int$1.27 billion and Int$0.45 billion respectively. The burden of heart problems in 2020 is expected to increase by 34.4% to total Int$2.09 billion and hypertension burden will increase by 46.1% to Int$1.99 billion. In 2020, these conditions are expected to impose an economic burden of Int$5.80 billion. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, this study demonstrates the significant burden of 4 primary NCDs on Indonesian households. In addition to the indirect burden, hypertension, diabetes, heart problems and stroke account for 8% of the nation's OOP healthcare expenditure, and due to rising disease prevalence and an aging population, this figure is expected to increase to 12% by 2020 without a significant health intervention.

The economic cost of myopia in adults aged over 40 years in Singapore.

PURPOSE: To estimate the economic cost of myopia among adults aged 40 years and older in Singapore. METHODS: A substudy of 113 Singaporean adults aged 40 years and older with myopia (spherical equivalent refraction of at least -0.5 diopters) in the population-based ancillary study of Singapore Chinese Eye Study (SCES) was conducted. A health expenditure questionnaire was used to assess the direct cost of myopia. RESULTS: A total of 113 (90.4%) of 125 myopic subjects participated in the survey. The mean cost was approximately SGD$900 (USD$709) per person per year. The lifetime per capita cost ranged from SGD$295 (USD$232) for those with 0 year's duration to SGD$21,616 (USD$17,020) for those with 80 years' duration. Costs of spectacles, contact lenses, and optometry services were the major cost drivers, contributing to an average of 65% of total costs. Seven subjects (6.2%) had undergone LASIK surgery, resulting in a cost of SGD$4891 (USD$3851) per patient per year. Three subjects (2.7%) reported annual costs of (SGD$33 or USD$26) for complications due to LASIK surgery or contact lenses. There was an increasing cost of myopia in adults who started to wear glasses at earlier ages. By applying our cost data to age-specific myopia prevalence data in the whole population in the country, the total cost was estimated to be approximately SGD$959 (USD$755) million per year in Singapore. CONCLUSIONS: Myopia is associated with substantial out-of-pocket expenditure, imposing considerable economic burden for patients. Myopia is a disorder with immense societal costs and public health impact.